Women, Work, Gender Inequality in Labor Market — General

Anderson, Deborah J., Melissa Binder, and Kate Krause. 2003. "The Motherhood Wage Penalty Revisited: Experience, Heterogeneity, Work Effort, and Work-Schedule Flexibility." Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 56 (2):273-294.

ABSTRACT: This paper seeks an explanation for the well-documented wage disadvantage of mothers compared to women without children. An analysis of data from the 1968-88 National Longitudinal Survey of Young Women shows that human capital inputs and unobserved heterogeneity explain 55-57% of the gap. Further analysis suggests that mothers tended to face the highest wage penalty when they first returned to work. A finding that medium-skill mothers (high school graduates) suffered more prolonged and severe wage losses than either low- or high-skill mothers casts doubt on the work-effort explanation for the wage gap, according to which women reduce work effort in response to childcare duties. The authors instead cite variable time constraints: high school graduates are likely to hold jobs requiring their presence during regular office hours, and are unlikely to gain flexibility by finding work at other hours or by taking work home in the evening.

Budig, Michelle J. and Paula England. 2001. "The Wage Penalty for Motherhood." American Sociological Review, 66 (2): 204-225.

ABSTRACT: Motherhood is associated with lower hourly pay, but the causes of this are not well understood. Mothers may earn less than other women because having children causes them to (I) lose job experience, (2) be less productive at work, (3) trade off higher wages for mother-friendly jobs, or (4) be discriminated against by employers. Or the relationship may be spurious rather than causal-women with lower earning potential may have children at relatively higher rates. The authors use data from the 1982-1993 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth with fixed-effects models to examine the wage penalty for motherhood. Results show a wage penalty of 7 percent per child. Penalties are larger for married women than for unmarried women. Women with (more) children have fewer years of job experience, and after controlling for experience a penalty of 5 percent per child remains. "Mother-friendly "characteristics of the jobs held by mothers explain little of the penalty beyond the tendency of more mothers than non-mothers to work part-time. The portion of the motherhood penalty unexplained probably results from the effect of motherhood on productivity and/or from discrimination by employers against mothers. While the benefits of mothering diffuse widely-to the employers, neighbors, friends, spouses, and children of the adults who received the mothering-the costs of child rearing are borne disproportionately by mothers.

Note: Seminal work. This piece is cited all over the place by everyone.

Cassirer, Naomi and Barbara Reskin. 2000. "High hopes: Organizational Position, Employment Experiences, and Women's and men's Promotion Aspirations." Work and Occupations, 27 (4): 438-463.

ABSTRACT: Kanter argued that men's and women's positions in workplace opportunity structures, not their sex, shape their career attitudes. Women attached less importance to promotion than men, according to 1991 General Social Survey data. The authors examine the extent to which this difference stems from the sexes' segregation into jobs with unequal opportunities, as Kanter argued. The findings are largely consistent with Kanter's thesis: Men attached greater importance to promotion than women because they were more likely to be located in organizational positions that encourage workers to hope for a promotion. Net of the effects of workers' organizational locations and prior promotion by their employer, sex was not associated with promotion attitudes.

Notes: 1991 General Social Survey (N=733). The major conclusion here is that men and women function similarly in response to their position in the social structure. Given the same opportunity structure, men and women would behave similarly and experience similar outcomes. This paper provides an argument against assertions of intrinsic differences between men's and women's career aspirations.

Correll, Shelley J. 2004. "Constraints into Preferences: Gender, Status, and Emerging Career Aspirations." American Sociological Review, 69 (1): 93-113

ABSTRACT: This study presents an experimental evaluation of a model that describes the constraining effect of cultural beliefs about gender on the emerging career-relevant aspirations of men and women. The model specifies the conditions under which gender status beliefs evoke a gender-differentiated double standard for attributing performance to ability, which differentially biases the way men and women assess their own competence at tasks that are career relevant, controlling for actual ability. The model implies that, if men and women make different assessments of their own competence at career-relevant tasks, they will also form different aspirations for career paths and activities believed to require competence at these tasks. Data from the experiment support this model. In one condition, male and female undergraduate participants completed an experimental task after being exposed to a belief that men are better at this task. In this condition, male participants assessed their task ability higher than female participants did even though all were given the same scores. Males in this condition also had higher aspirations for career relevant activities described as requiring competence at the task. No gender differences were found in either assessments or aspirations in a second condition where participants were instead exposed to a belief that men and women have equal task ability. To illustrate the utility of the model in a "real world" (i. e. , non-laboratory setting, results are compared to a previous survey study that showed men make higher assessments of their own mathematical ability than women, which contributes to their higher rates of persistence on paths to careers in science, math, and engineering.

Heilman, Madeline E. and Tyler G. Okimoto. 2007. "Why Are Women Penalized for Success at Male Tasks? The Implied Communality Deficit." Journal of Applied Psychology, 92 (1): 81-92.

ABSTRACT: In 3 experimental studies, the authors tested the idea that penalties women incur for success in traditionally male areas arise from a perceived deficit in nurturing and socially sensitive communal attributes that is implied by their success. The authors therefore expected that providing information of-communality would prevent these penalties. Results indicated that the negativity directed at successful female managers — in ratings of like ability, interpersonal hostility, and boss desirability — Was mitigated when there was indication that they were communal. This ameliorative effect occurred only when the information was clearly indicative of communal attributes (Study 1) and when it could be unambiguously attributed to the female manager (Study 2);furthermore, these penalties were averted when communality was conveyed by role information (motherhood status) or by behavior (Study 3). These findings support the idea that penalties for women's success in male domains result from the perceived violation of gender-stereotypic prescriptions.

Note: Interesting gender stereotype stuff. Experimental design. Sample: 75 male and female undergrads. Very similar to Shelley's recent experimental psych study on evaluations/employability of mothers, but brings out in particular, the issue of women in male-dominated occupations.

Huffman, Matt L. 2004. "Gender Inequality Across Local Wage Hierarchies." Work and Occupations, 31 (3): 323-344.

ABSTRACT: Is gender inequality more severe in higher paying jobs, where there is more at stake? Using a unique definition of jobs — local occupation-industry cells — and multilevel models, I offer the first investigation of how gender wage inequality varies as a function of a job's ranking in its specific local labor-market context. The results suggest that net of various individual- and job-level controls, (a) female-dominated jobs pay less than comparable male-dominated jobs, (b) the penalty associated with female-dominated jobs is steeper for women, and (c) wage inequality increases as one ascends the wage hierarchy of local labor markets. However, there is no evidence that the tendency for female-dominated jobs to pay less than comparable male-dominated jobs is stronger in high-ranking jobs. Taken together, the results are consistent with the exclusion of women from high-ranking jobs as well as gender segregation within local occupation industry cells.

Notes: 1990 Census PUMS data. The way the data are used provides a more detailed analysis of local labor markets, though findings corroborate those found using aggregate, national data.

Women/Women Faculty/Gender Equity in Higher Education

Bailyn, Lotte. 2003. "Academic careers and gender equity: Lessons learned from MIT." Gender, Work, and Organization, 10 (2): 137-153.

ABSTRACT: This article describes the experience at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology after the publication of its report A Study on the Status of Women Faculty in Science at MIT. It starts by describing aspects of the academic career that make it difficult for women, or anyone with responsibilities outside of their academic work. It then outlines three definitions of gender equity based on equality, fairness, and integration, and probes the reasons behind persisting inequities. The MIT results fit well into the first two definitions of gender equity, but fall short on the last. Finally, the article analyses the factors that came together at MIT to produce the outcome described and indicates the lessons learned and those still to be learned.

Bellas, Marcia L. , P. Neal Ritchey, and Penelope Parmer. 2001. "Gender Differences in the Salaries and Salary Growth Rates of University Faculty: An Exploratory Study." Sociological Perspectives, 44 (2): 163-187.

ABSTRACT: This study uses individual growth modeling to examine gender differences in salaries and salary growth rates between 1985 and 1995 for a sample of 306 faculty members at a research university. We analyze gender differences in estimated annual salary in 1985, the start of the ten-year period of study, as well as differences in the rate of salary growth during subsequent years. Individual growth modeling is particularly well suited to an analysis of salary changes over time, since it has the advantage of making use of all available data points rather than only two, as is the case with traditional change models. Findings show that a sizable gap between men's and women's estimated 1985 salaries remains after controlling for relevant factors. However, women show higher rates of salary growth during the ten-year period. Faculty with the highest growth rates are those most likely to leave the university, and, as a result, the salary growth rates for women and men are virtually identical by the end of the ten-year period.

Notes: The finding that women show higher rates of salary growth is due to the fact that women dominate the lower ranks of the faculty, and so show higher rates of promotion, which lead to the higher rates of salary growth. The interesting thing here is that the most successful women (those with strongest salary growth over the ten-year period observed) are most likely to resign from the university. Because the study is based on a sample at a single university, generalizability is limited.

Drago, Robert, Carol L. Colbeck, Kai Dawn Stauffer, Amy Pirretti, Kurt Burkum, Jennifer Fazioli, Gabriela Lazzaro, and Tara Habasevich. 2006. "The avoidance of bias against caregiving: The case of academic faculty." American Behavioral Scientist, 49 (9): 1222-1247.

ABSTRACT: The authors analyze bias avoidance behaviors, whereby employees respond to biases against caregiving in the workplace by strategically minimizing or hiding family commitments. They divide bias avoidance behaviors into productive types that improve work performance and unproductive types that are inefficient. Original survey data from 4, 188 chemistry and English faculty in507 U. S. colleges and universities suggest both types of bias avoidance are relatively common and women more often report both types of behavior. Regression analyses show few disciplinary differences, find supportive supervisors associated with reductions in reports of bias avoidance, suggest low levels of bias avoidance for women are linked to institutional gender equity, and support the possibility that there are subjective components to bias avoidance behaviors.

Notes: Main findings: 'Bias avoidance' as another form of gender inequality in the academy, as women engage in it more than men do. Supervisor support for work and family needs is a strong determinant of bias avoidance behavior. This study finds the 'ideal worker' and 'ideal motherhood' very much alive.

Elliott Marta. 2003. "Work and Family Role Strain Among University Employees." Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 24 (2): 157-181.

ABSTRACT: This paper analyzes the determinants of work and family role strain among university employees with data from a survey of faculty and staff of a public university in the Western United States. The results indicate that difficulties caring for children and elderly dependents are the primary causes of work and family role strain in the family domain, while dissatisfaction with resources and perceived unfair criticism are primary in the work domain. The predictors of work and family role strain are similar for faculty and staff, and for men and women, with one exception: Having a supportive spouse or partner reduces work and family role strain much more for women than it does for men. Implications for university personnel policy are discussed.

Notes: N = 785. A random sample of 1200 employees were drawn from the university faculty and staff permanent personnel. The sample is stratified by gender and job category. No differences are found between faculty and staff in their reported levels of role strain. Women report greater work and family role strain than men, regardless of whether or not they have children.

Kurtz-Costes, Beth, Laura Andrews Helmke, and Beril UlkU-Steiner. 2006. "Gender and doctoral studies: the perceptions of Ph. D. students in an American university. "Gender and Education, 18 ( 2):137-155.

Twenty students enrolled in Ph. D. programs were interviewed to examine the role of gender in their academic experiences. Gender was examined in three ways:gender of the student, gender of the student's faculty supervisor and gender make-up of the faculty within the student's department or academic unit. All students reported the importance of supportive faculty mentors and that financial worries, time pressure and the uncertainty of future employment were sources of stress. Family formation and striving toward personal as well as professional goals were particularly of concern for women, as were perceptions of differential treatment. Women students valued women faculty mentors, although female faculty were perceived as less supportive than male faculty of family concerns when these women had themselves sacrificed family formation for the sake of their careers. Both men and women experienced less stress and reported greater career commitment when faculty in their departments exhibited less traditional values regarding the balancing of personal and professional goals. The implications of these findings for reducing doctoral student attrition rates and for creating a more supportive environment for Ph. D. students are discussed.

Notes: Results from this qualitative study of 20 students make a good case for increasing women's representation in the ranks of faculty in sci & eng. Would similar findings hold for race/ethnic composition of faculty?

Mason, Mary Ann and Marc Goulden. 2004. "Marriage and Baby Blues: Redefining Gender Equity in the Academy." ANNALS, AAPSS, 596: 86-103.

Traditionally, gender equity in the academy is evaluated in terms of women's professional success as compared to men's. This study examines gender equity not only in terms of professional outcomes but also in terms of familial outcomes, such as childbirth, marriage, and divorce. Using data from the Survey of Doctorate Recipients as well as data from a 2002 to 2003 survey of the work and family issues facing ladder-rank faculty in the nine campuses of the University of California system, the authors followed more than thirty thousand Ph. D. s in all disciplines across their life course and surveyed more than eighty-five hundred active University of California faculty. Results indicate that gender equity in terms of familial gains is as elusive as gender equity in terms of professional employment, raising the fundamental issue of what gender equity means in a university setting or in any fast-track employment setting.

Miller, JoAnn and Marilyn Chamberlin. 2000. "Women Are Teachers, Men Are Professors: A Study of Student Perceptions. "Teaching Sociology, 28 (4):283-298.

ABSTRACT: Sociology students' perceptions of their instructors' educational attainment levels are examined empirically. We find gender disparities: students misattribute in an upward direction the level of education actually attained by male graduate student instructors, while they misattribute in a downward direction the level of formal education attained by women, even when the female faculty member is a full professor. The misattributions are linked to the imputed statuses "teacher" for women, and "professor" for men, regardless of the actual positions held or the credentials earned by faculty members and graduate student instructors. We suggest that a process of marginalization explains the empirical findings-a process that is attributed by others, but chosen by the self, regardless of the social and economic costs incurred. Consequences for students and sociology professors are discussed.

Notes: Survey study of 300 undergraduates. The title is the punch line — says it all.

Suitor, J. Jill, Dorothy Mecom, and Ilana S. Feld. 2001. "Gender, Household Labor, and Scholarly Productivity Among University Professors". Gender Issues, pp. 50-69.

ABSTRACT: In the present paper, we use data collected from 673 faculty members at one research university to describe the division of household labor among academics and explore the relationship between household labor and scholarly productivity. The analyses demonstrate that domestic labor is distributed along relatively traditional lines among academics, reflecting the continued traditionalism found in the general population regarding household labor and child care. Women college-professors shoulder considerably more household labor than do their male colleagues — particularly when they are married and when there are children in the home. We hypothesized that the gender discrepancies in household labor we found would translate into differences in scholarly productivity; however, this was the case only among tenure-track faculty with children in the home.

Toutkoushian, Robert K. and Valerie Martin Conley. 2005. "Progress for Women in Academe, Yet Inequities Persist: Evidence from NSOPF: 99." Research in Higher Education, 46 (1).

ABSTRACT: In this study, we use data from the 1999 National Study of Post secondary Faculty (NSOPF:99) to measure the unexplained wage gap between men and women in academe. We pay particular attention to how these unexplained wage gaps have changed over time by comparing the results from the 1999 survey to published results from previous national surveys and test for the sensitivity of these findings to the method used for measuring the unexplained wage gap and the type of institution or field being examined. We found that there has been a notable reduction in the overall unexplained wage gap between men and women, and that there is no longer any evidence of a statistically significant pay differential between men and women in doctoral-level or liberal arts institutions. The results also show that significant pay differentials still persist in some segments of academe, and that overall women with comparable qualifications to men have lower salaries.

Umbach, Paul D. 2007. "Gender Equity in the Academic Labor Market: An Analysis of Academic Disciplines." Research in Higher Education, Vol. 48, No. 2.

ABSTRACT: This study uses hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) to analyze the effect of human capital, structural characteristics of the discipline, and disciplinary labor market conditions on faculty salaries. Faculty in disciplines characterized by relatively low demand, high teaching loads, and low amounts of research funding earn less than do faculty in other disciplines. Additionally, even after controlling for an array of individual and disciplinary characteristics, women faculty members earn less than their male peers.

Notes: Women earn less than men in all disciplines, after controlling for productivity, individual characteristics, etc. Notably, women tend to be more highly represented in fields w/high teaching loads, low demand, low research, so they earn less than other faculty do in other fields, but also less than their male counterparts.

Racial Inequality in the Labor Market  

England, Paula, Carmen Garcia-Beaulieu, and Mary Ross. 2004. "Women's Employment Among Blacks, Whites, and Three Groups of Latinas: Do More Privileged Women Have Higher Employment?" Gender &Society, 18 (4): 494-509.

ABSTRACT: During much of U. S. history, Black women had higher employment rates than white women. But by the late twentieth century, women in more privileged racial/ethnic, national origin, and education groups were more likely to work for pay. The authors compare the employment of white women to Blacks and three groups of Latinos, Mexicans, Cubans, and Puerto Ricans, and explain racial/ethnic group differences. White women work for pay more weeks per year than Latinas or Black women, although the gaps are small for all groups but Mexicans. In all groups, education encourages and children reduce employment. Having a husband does not reduce employment, and husbands' earnings have little effect. The higher fertility of Mexicans and the large number of recent immigrants among Mexican women reduce their employment relative to that of white women. The higher education of white women explains large shares of the employment gap with each group of women of color because, in today's labor market, education strongly predicts employment.

Notes: Data — 2001 CPS. DV: Employment in previous year. Authors attribute unexplained variance to some combination of discrimination and living in segregated neighborhoods with inferior schools and fewer employment opportunities. Authors also argue that children, not marriage, is the 'lynchpin of gender inequality' insofar as it affects employment.

Harper, Shannon and Barbara Reskin. 2007. "Affirmative Action at School and On the Job." Annual Review of Sociology, 31: 357-379.

ABSTRACT: Affirmative action (AA) addresses individuals' exclusion from opportunities based on group membership by taking into account race, sex, ethnicity, and other characteristics. This chapter reviews sociological, economic, historical, and legal scholarship on AA. We first consider the emergence of group-based remedies, how protected groups are defined, and proportional representation as a standard for inclusion. We then summarize the research on AA in education (including busing) and in employment. The concluding section reviews societal responses to AA, including attitudes, challenges, and political responses. As public and judicial support for AA has waned, employers and educators have increasingly turned toward diversity as a rationale for including underrepresented groups. Despite this change, many employers and educators continue to take positive steps to include minorities and women.

Elliott, James R. and Ryan A. Smith. 2004. "Race, Gender, and Workplace Power." American Sociological Review, 69 (3): 365-386.

ABSTRACT: Survey data support hypotheses regarding differential access to workplace power among women and minorities relative to white men. Specific findings indicate that, relative to white men, all groups encounter increasing inequality at higher levels of power; but only black women seem to experience this form of inequality as a result of direct discrimination. Further analysis indicates that network assistance is more a response to this form of discrimination than an indirect cause. Finally, analysis shows that most groups attain power through homosocial reproduction, but what differs is the opportunity to engage in such reproduction, wherein white men excel. These findings imply that while women and minorities face lower odds than white men of achieving higher levels of workplace power; the reasons for this disadvantage vary among respective groups and thus will likely require different remedies.

Kane, Emily W. and Elise K. Kyyro. 2001. "For Whom Does Education Enlighten? Race, Gender, Education, and Beliefs about Social Inequality." Gender & Society, 15 (5): 710-733.

ABSTRACT: Beliefs have the potential to obscure and legitimate, or to challenge, inequalities of gender and race. Through an analysis of the association between education and beliefs about racial and gender inequality, this article explores for whom education is most likely to foster beliefs that challenge social inequality. Data from the 1996 General Social Survey suggest that education tends to have a greater positive impact on rejection of group segregation and rejection of victim-blaming explanations for inequality than it does on recognition of discrimination or endorsement of group-based remedies for inequality. This pattern is consistent with the view that education reproduces rather than challenges inequality, and it is evident for white men, white women, and African American men. African American women present an exception, which is considered in terms of the unique structural location and historical legacy surrounding African American women's relationship to education.

Notes: Interesting findings and thoughtful interpretation of findings.

Kennelly, Ivy. 1999. "That Single-Mother Element: How White Employers Typify Black Women. " Gender & Society, 13 (2): 168-192.

ABSTRACT: Many employers assess their workforces with gendered and radicalized imagery that can put groups of workers and applicants at a disadvantage in the labor market. Bused on 78 interviews with white employers in Atlanta, the author reveals that some employers use a complex but widely shared stereotype of Black working-class women as single mothers to typify members of this group. These employers use this single-mother image to explain why they think Black women are poor workers, why they think Black women are reliable workers, and why they think Blacks are poorly prepared for the labor market. In focusing on these white employers claims, the author concentrates not on the well-documented outcomes of labor market discrimination, such as differential rates of pay and promotion, but on how employers construct and use the images that may form the basis o f it. This is especially relevant amid current attacks on affirmative action programs.

Notes: Based on in-depth interviews with 78 white employers. Another good overview of stereotypes of and biases against black women as workers.

Martin, Cathy D. 2000. "More Than the Work: Race and Gender Differences in Caregiving Burden." Journal of Family Issues, 21 (8): 986-1005.

This study examines race and gender differences in the burden experienced by family caregivers of the elderly using data from the 1990 Informal Caregivers Survey. Social exchange theory predicts burden to a certain extent based on the caregiving context (e. g. , psychological difficulties of the elder and positive aspects of caregiving) and work performed (e. g. , hours per week and specific tasks), but race and gender differences independent of the context suggest that feeling burdened also depends on identities embodied in gender roles and African American culture. Also predictive of burden is the interaction between race and gender, and although African American and White women face similar caregiving situations, African American women report less burden than White women or men of either race.

Notes: Authors conclude that based on previous cultural studies, African American women may experience less burden because it is more normative in their families for them to take care of their family members.

McGuire, Gail M. 2000. "Gender, Race, Ethnicity, and Networks The Factors Affecting the Status of Employees' Network Members." Work and Occupations, 27 (4): 501-523.

ABSTRACT: This study sheds light on the informal mechanisms that contribute to inequality by examining the relationship between gender, race/ethnicity, and networks. Drawing on network theory and status construction theory, the author examines the routes through which employees' sex and race/ethnicity affect the status of their network members. The analyses indicate that women and people of color had network members with lower status than men and Whites because they occupied positions that limited their access to and ability to attract powerful employees. The author concludes that structural rather than personal exclusion explains race/ethnic and sex differences in the status of network members.

Notes: Structural exclusion as key to gender and race stratification in the labor market. Network analysis suggests a lower status of network ties among women and people of color that creates a ceiling on how far/high their networks will reach.

Miech, Richard A., William Eaton, and Kung-Yee Liang. 2003. "Occupational Stratification Over the Life Course A Comparison of Occupational Trajectories Across Race and Gender During the 1980s and 1990s." Work and Occupations, 30 (4): 440-473.

This study uses growth curve analysis to examine whether disparities in the occupational standing of White men relative to women and minorities grew larger or smaller with advancing age during the 1980s and 1990s. The analyses are based on The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 and the Baltimore Epidemiological Catchment Area Follow-Up. Results indicate that disparities in occupational standing stayed constant over the life course across all demographic groups except for African Americans, whose gap in occupational status relative to Whites and Hispanics grew significantly larger with advancing age. Implications of these findings for theories of occupational inequality are discussed.

Notes: Heavy on the methods. Results highlight different occupational trajectories by race, suggesting that white employees have qualitatively and quantifiable different experiences in the labor market than do Hispanic employees, than do African American employees.

Reid, Lori L. 2002. "Occupational Segregation, Human Capital, and Motherhood: Black Women's Higher Exit Rates from Full-Time Employment." Gender and Society, Vol. 16 ( 5): 728-747.

ABSTRACT: Recent research indicates that among young women, Blacks have lower employment rates than whites. Evidence is provided about whether young Black women's lower employment rates stem from structural features of the labor market, discrimination, or changing family or individual characteristics. Data show that Black women exit full-time employment at higher rates because they are more likely to be laid off and leave because they work in temporary/seasonal jobs, and to leave for other reasons. Structural features of the labor market are key in explaining Black women's higher rates of lay-offs, exits from temporary/seasonal work, and exits for other reasons. Individual characteristics and discrimination play a role in Black women's higher rates of lay-offs and exits for other reasons while family characteristics are important in explaining Black women's higher rates of leaving temp/seasonal work and leaving for other reasons. Evidence suggests that Black women's higher exit rates are indicative of disadvantage in the labor market.

Notes: Using event history analysis on NLSY data, author finds that black women are just as likely as white women to enter full-time employment, but exit rates are 38% higher. Black women are more likely to be employed in occupations that are more susceptible to layoffs: structural positions in labor market largely account to differences in black-white women's employment experiences.

Reid, Lori L, and Irene Padavic. 2005. "Employment Exits and the Race Gap in Young Women's Employment." Social Science Quarterly; 2005; 86: 1242-1261.

Notes: Using event-history analyses on NLSY data, authors find that black women's higher exits from employment relative to white women's is associated with greater number of children and lower AFQT scores.

Roberts, Dorothy E. 1997. "Unshackling Black Motherhood." Michigan Law Review, Vol. 95, No. 4, Symposium: Representing Race. (Feb):938-964.

Notes: Interesting article on the devaluation of black mothers. Examines treatment of maternal drug use in South Carolina through a race lens. Examines myths/stereotypes of black motherhood.

Smith, Ryan A. 2005. "Do the Determinants of Promotion Differ for White Men Versus Women and Minorities? An Exploration of Intersectionalism Through Sponsored and Contest Mobility Processes". American Behavioral Scientist, 48 (9): 1157-1181.

ABSTRACT: This article uses survey data to address two previously unanswered questions: What explains the gap in promotion between women and minorities relative to White men — and Are the processes that determine promotions for White men the same for minorities and women? Overall, race and gender intersect to produce unique promotion outcomes for all groups. Specifically, promotion gaps between White men and their female and minority counterparts are largely a function of group differences in performance indicators and work commitment. Also, relative to White men, before receiving a promotion, Black men must work longer periods of time after leaving school and Latinos must accrue more years with their current employer. Finally, the processes that lead to promotion do not differ between White men and White women, but relative to White men, Black women and Latinas must have more prior job-specific experience and more overall work experience before receiving a promotion"All else equal.

Notes: 'intersectionality' figures prominently in this article — minority women are found to fare worse compared to white men. Women are found to be 'less committed' (as measured by such things as hours worked per week and the presence of children — unexamined assumptions!).

Faculty of Color in Higher Education

Aguirre, Adalberto Jr. 2000. "Academic storytelling: A critical race theory story of Affirmative Action." Sociological Perspectives, 43 (2): 319-339.

ABSTRACT: The minority (nonwhite) can tell stories about institutional practices in academia that result in unintended benefits for the majority (white). One institutional practice in academia is affirmative action. This article presents a story about a minority applicant for a sociology position and his referral to an affirmative action program for recruiting minority faculty. One reason for telling the story is to illustrate how an affirmative action program can be implemented in a manner that marginalizes minority persons in the faculty recruitment process and results in benefits for majority persons. Another reason for telling the story is to sound an alarm for majority and minority faculty who support affirmative action programs that the programs can fall short of their goals if their implementation is simply treated as a bureaucratic activity in academia.

Notes: A first-person account of affirmative action efforts directed at recruitment of minority faculty. This is an analytical narration of a Latino faculty member's experience of how organizational processes are implemented in academia in such a way as to reinforce structural minority/majority power differences, even in affirmative action efforts which are supposed to be designed based on the goals of redistributing power.

Allen, Walter R. , Edgar G. Epps, Elizabeth A. Guillory, Susan A. Suh, and Marguerite Bonous-Hammarth. 2000. "The Black Academic: Faculty Status among African Americans in U. S. Higher Education." The Journal of Negro Education, 69 (1-2):112-127.

ABSTRACT: Research reveals a persistent problem of under representation and low-academic status of African American faculty members at most U. S. colleges and universities. Using univariate and bivariate statistics, this study examined the status of African Americans in the U. S. professorate and its relationship to this group's access and success. It compared the characteristics, experiences, and achievements of African American professors on six predominantly White midwestern campuses to those of their White peers, focusing on the opportunity structure, resources, and academic and nonacademic demands as related to entrance and advancement. As expected, African American faculty members were found to be systematically and significantly disadvantaged on all measures relative to Whites, presenting serious, persistent obstacles to their recruitment, retention, and success.

Notes: Survey data were collected from faculty members at 3 private and 3 public institutions in the Midwest. N = 1, 189. The general question guiding the study was: "Are there significant differences by race in faculty members' status, workload and satisfaction?" The answer is basically, yes, and African American faculty are significantly disadvantaged in faculty academic rank, years at institution, academic tenure, teaching workload, administrative workload, student relations, and overall satisfaction as compared to White faculty.

Robinette, Phillip. D. 2000. "Mediation and Minority Members of Academe". Sociological Practice: A Journal of Clinical and Applied Sociology, 2 ( 3): 221 — 235.

ABSTRACT: Focus groups are used to gather information from minorities in a university setting. Minority members of three campus groups (students, staff, and faculty) identified issues that could lead to relational conflicts. Alternative methods of dispute resolution are discussed in terms of their suitability and viability for use by minorities in academe. Mediation is presented as the preferred process for conflict resolution on an increasing number of college and university campuses.

Notes: this article is potentially useful in the issues the author identifies are salient for minority faculty: low credibility, lack of representation, restricted upward mobility, dictatorial management style, overwhelmed, devaluation.

Segura, Denise A. 2003. "Navigating between Two Worlds: The Labyrinth of Chicana Intellectual Production in the Academy." Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 34, No. 1, Race in the Academy: Moving beyond Diversity and toward the Incorporation of Faculty of Color in Predominantly White Colleges and Universities: 28-51.

ABSTRACT: Under girded by a theoretical framework, which focuses on the important role of social context, this article focuses primarily on the cultural, institutional, and individual factors explaining how Chicanas fare in academia. To what extent are the experiences of Chicanas exemplary in suggesting similar issues for African-American, Asian, and American Indian women? What strategies have Chicanas employed to help them negotiate the new and ever-changing aspects of academic life? Based on research with 30 Chicana faculty, this article provides compelling answers to these important but unanswered questions.

Notes: Author presents sort of a case study of 4 interviews selected from a larger group of 30 that were originally conducted. A bit light on analysis, but insightful case studies.

Toutkoushian, Robert K. 1998. "Racial and Marital Status Differences in Faculty Pay." The Journal of Higher Education, Vol. 69 (5): 513-541.

Notes: Nationally representative sample NSOPF-93 data. Overall, marriage premium found for men, but not women. White women are found to be at a greater disadvantage than black and Asian women in faculty pay. Hispanic women are at avery slight disadvantage to white women. Asian and white men are at an advantage over black and Hispanic men. Different analyses break down the analysis of pay gaps in different ways.

Race in Higher Education

Women Faculty of Color

Agathangelou, Anna M. and L. H. M Ling. 2002. "An unten(ur)able position: The politics of teaching for women of color in the U. S." International Feminist Journal of Politics, 4 (3): 368-398.

Abstract: The U. S. academy wants "multiculturalism" in the classroom. But its public rhetoric of fairness, standards, and diversity falls far short of its exclusionary actions in private, particularly for women of color faculty at tenure time. Tenure evaluations, we propose, reflect a narrative of institutional power that perpetuates the academy's religious colonial legacy. Priest-Novitiate relations rule the academy more than a community of peers. Accordingly, women of color faculty face not just a glass ceiling when it comes to tenure and promotions. Rather, they encounter a more subtle, complex, and insidious form of resistance. It consists of a specific configuration of racial (white), gender (male), class (aristocratic or upwardly-mobile), and cultural (Western medieval) criteria that women of color cannot possibly satisfy. We conclude with some suggestions for transforming these social relations in the academy.

Notes: Based largely on cases published in the Chronicle of Higher Education, PS: Political Science & Politics, and other anecdotal evidence, this paper examines the tenure process and the ways in which it is biased against women of color. Interesting analyses and critique, but could be significantly shored up methodologically.

Beutel, Ann M. and Donna J. Nelson. 2006. "The gender and race-ethnicity of faculty in top social science research departments." The Social Science Journal:111-125.

Abstract: This paper provides a recent profile of the gender and race-ethnicity of faculty in top research departments of economics, political science, and sociology. Most faculty are male, although there appear to be critical masses of women in political science and sociology. Blacks and Hispanics are underrepresented among faculty relative to their shares of the population. Within each racial-ethnic group examined, there are more male than female faculty members, with a smaller gender gap for Blacks than for other racial-ethnic groups. In general, the higher the rank, the greater the proportion of males than females, especially for Whites and Asians.

Notes:A very detailed descriptive paper of the race and gender composition of faculty in social sciences. Not a whole lot of analysis.

Garcia, Alyssa. 2005. "Counter Stories of Race and Gender: Situating Experiences of Latinas in the Academy." Latino Studies, 2005 (3): 261-273.

ABSTRACT: 1 Counter-storytelling is utilized as a tool of resistance, empowerment, and self-representation, a mode of "Talking back" to power. It allows for an individual from an oppressed group to identify and contextualize his/her experiences with others, relieving a sense of isolation and internalized failure. In validating the experiences of people of color, counter-stories are a powerful means to destroy the general mindset of the dominant culture. The status quo and complacency born of comforting dominant ideologies is challenged with counter storytelling (Delgado, 1989). 2 This essay derives from formal interviews with four Latina faculty and several informal interviews with other Latina faculty from different universities and disciplines. Their names have been changed to ensure their anonymity. 3 Counter-storytelling invokes anger, pain, and frustration for those who tell and listen to them. Despite potential progress toward social justice that has been made, counter-stories serve as a reminder of the continuing reality of racism and sexism. Thus, rather than engage in tense sentiments of "who had it worst," counter-stories allow for the validation of experiences with oppression across all generations. 4 Silence is also the active process of listening to cultural discrepancies and waiting for an appropriate moment in which to intervene. Silences [can be seen] as undesirable but also enabling silences can represent forms of control and hegemony over one's life. Silence as a form of control also means avoiding the reliving of tragic and painful events (Chon, 1995, 25-26). 5 I would like to highlight that "one cannot really 'give voice' to others without unlearning one's privilege as a speaking/ making subject" (Chon, 1995, 31).

Notes: A first-person account of one Latina experience in academia. A bit anecdotal, but interesting perspective.

Green, Cheryl Evans and Valarie Greene King 2001. "Sisters Mentoring Sisters: Africentric Leadership Development for Black Women in the Academy." The Journal of Negro Education, 70 (3):156-165.

Abstract: The Sisters Mentoring Sisters (SISTERS) Project was designed to help Black women at a predominantly White Central Florida state university develop career plans and strategies for their personal growth and professional development. Focus group participants discussed topics such as the needs of Black women at all levels of the academy, strategies for developing their leadership abilities, and opportunities for their career advancement. Focus group data were used to plan group mentoring sessions that focused on empowering participants to obtain administrative and professional positions in higher education. Africentric concepts and principles provided a framework for didactic and experiential activities that emphasized three types of individual and organizational support: emotional, informational, and structural.

Notes: Two focus groups were held by SISTERS project developers to discuss the impact of the project and participants' experience of emotional support, informational, and structural support — three types of support identified as essential for career development. Participation in the SISTERS project created a sense of belonging/community.

Gregory, Sheila T. 2001. "Black Faculty Women in the Academy: History, Status, and Future." The Journal of Negro Education, (70)3: 124-138.

Black women have participated in American higher education for over a century. Despite formidable professional and personal barriers, they have made significant advances. Many have reaped the benefits of their contributions. This article discusses the history and status of Black faculty women, describing strategies they have used to overcome internal and external challenges. It addresses critical issues such as managing career and family, establishing support systems, and negotiating tenure and promotion. It also offers suggestions for restructuring their career development to help them develop strategic professional and personal skills that can ensure their survival and achievement in the academy.

Notes: An essay on the challenges associated with academia, particularly for black women faculty. Author offers strategies for retention/advancement.

Jackson, Judy. 2004. "The Story is Not in the Numbers: Academic Socialization and Diversifying the Faculty." NWSA Journal, 16 (1):172-185.

This report is of a descriptive study that explored differences by gender and race/ethnicity on measures of teaching, research, and service productivity of 665 tenured engineering faculty members in 19 research intensive institutions. Data from a self-report survey were analyzed using inferential and descriptive methods. Comparisons among productivity levels of white male faculty and those of white women, and of Blacks, Hispanics, and Asians, revealed little difference. Qualitative data on social experiences of the participants showed that women and faculty of color were more discouraged, less supported, and perceived the tenure process to be less fair, than their white male colleagues. I discuss implications of the findings for administrators and suggestions for diversifying the faculty.

Menges, Robert J. and William H. Exum. 1983. "Barriers to the Progress of Women and Minority Faculty" The Journal of Higher Education, 54 (2): 123-144.

Notes: This is an early review article on the challenges faced by women and minority faculty. Interestingly (and sadly), a lot of the same issues are still being discussed today! (e. g. , affirmative action effectiveness, increasing the pool of applicants — pipeline issues, etc. )

Morris, Edward W. 2007. "'Ladies' or 'Loudies'" Perceptions and Experiences of Black Girls in Classrooms." Youth & Society, 38 (4): 490-515.

ABSTRACT: Although much scholarship has focused on the schooling experiences of African American boys, this article demonstrates that African American girls encounter unique educational perceptions and obstacles. Black girls in a predominately minority school performed well academically, but educators often questioned their manners and behavior. Some tried to mold many of these girls into 'ladies,' which entailed curbing behavior perceived as 'loud' and assertive. This article advances theories of intersectionality by showing how race and class shape perceptions of femininity for Black girls, and how the encouragement of more traditionally feminine behavior could ultimately limit their academic potential.

Notes: Pipeline issues, perceptions, stereotyping, biasing.

Flores Niemann, Yolanda and John F. Dovidio. 1998. "Tenure, Race/Ethnicity and Attitudes toward Affirmative Action: A Matter of Self-Interest?" Sociological Perspectives, 41 (4): 783-796.

ABSTRACT: The present study, which surveyed members of the American Psychological Association who work in academic positions, examined the hypothesis that, due to the effects of self- and collective-interest, the attitudes of White, African American, Hispanic, and Asian faculty toward affirmative action would be moderated by tenure status. Hypotheses were partially confirmed. Untenured African Americans demonstrated somewhat more support for affirmative action than did tenured African Americans. However, like Whites, untenured Hispanics and Asians were less supportive of affirmative action than their tenured colleagues. As expected, White men were less supportive of affirmative action than White women or African Americans, Hispanics, and Asians. Discussion considered how the perceived benefits and costs of affirmative action may differ for different ethnic/racial groups.

Olsen, Deborah, Sue A. Maple, and Frances K. Stage. 1995. "Women and Minority Faculty Job Satisfaction: Professional Role Interests, Professional Satisfactions, and Institutional Fit." The Journal of Higher Education, 66 (3): 267-293.

Notes: Survey of 146 tenure-track faculty — both male and female. Findings call into question previous studies that suggest women and minorities spend more time in service activities and suffer from decreased likelihood of promotion and tenure as a result. This study finds no difference between men's and women's and between minority and non-minority time spent inservice activities.

Renzulli, Linda A. , Linda Grant, and Sheetija Kathuria. 2006. "Race, Gender, and the Wage Gap: Comparing Faculty Salaries in Predominately White and Historically Black Colleges and Universities." Gender & Society, 20 (4): 491-510.

ABSTRACT: Using the Integrated Post secondary Education Data System, the authors compare the gender pay gap at predominantly white institutions (PWIs) with the gap at historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs). Also, within the HBCU milieu, they examine how class of the institution has an impact on pay gaps. First, they find that HBCUs do seem to have a smaller gap but that pay for all faculty at HBCUs is lower than in PWIs. Second, the gap is only significantly smaller in the rank of associates. Third, the gap is smaller at the associate rank because men make less money in HBCUs than they do in PWIs. Fourth, elite HBCUs are more similar to PWIs than to HBCUs in terms of their gender pay gap. Race, class, and gender effects must be taken into account to understand patterns of wage equity across these institutions. The greater gender equity at HBCUs is apparent because of the absence of the "men's bonus," which is prevalent in PWIs and elite HBCUs.

Turner, Caroline Sotello Viernes. 2002. "Women of Color in Academe: Living with Multiple Marginality." The Journal of Higher Education, Vol. 73, No. 1, Special Issue: The Faculty in the New Millennium. (Jan. - Feb. , 2002), pp. 74-93.

Notes: Interviews w/64 women faculty of color. Challenges identified in interviews include isolation, feeling overtaxed and undervalued especially with mentoring, being challenged by students in ways that white faculty are not. Author identifies some ways in which experiences of women faculty of color might be improved/ways in which they might be better supported.

Wright, Sheila, Juliet Dinhka. "Gendered Reality: The Experiences of Women of Faculty of Color"

Notes: Don't know where this paper came from, but it provides a nice overview and review of literature on issues faced by women faculty of color.

Gender in Science

Corley, Elizabeth A. 2005. "How Do Career Strategies, Gender, and Work Environment Affect Faculty Productivity Levels in University-Based Science Centers?" Review of Policy Research, 22 (5): 637-655.

Abstract: Recent studies have shown that in many science and engineering fields, almost 40% of faculty are affiliated with university-based research centers (Corley & Gaughan, 2005). As major science funding organizations continue to increase annual levels of funding for interdisciplinary science centers, it is likely that this number will increase significantly over the next decade. Moreover, some scholars have argued that the rise of university-based science centers has already led to the development of a new institutional form for the execution of university-based research (Bozeman& Boardman, 2004). Yet, interestingly few researchers have studied the impacts of this new institutional form on the productivity of individual researchers. The purpose of this article is to begin to address how individual career strategies and perceptions of scientific work environments within university-based science centers relate to the productivity of academic scientists who participate in these centers. In particular, this article investigates the relationships between productivity, individual career strategies, and perceptions of scientific work environment across gender. The results of the study demonstrate that university-based science centers might serve as an equalizing mechanism for male and female productivity levels. Yet, women scientists affiliated with these centers are significantly more likely to feel discriminated against"And they are less likely to embrace the most promising career strategy for the current structure of these centers.

Notes: In 2000 and 2001, the CV data were collected for 1, 041 PhD-level scientists by contacting 13 NSF centers to obtain a list of their scientists and engineers. Mail-in questionnaire was also sent, and 451 completed were received. After controlling for discipline, marital status, number of children, and years since highest degree, there was no effect of gender on productivity, as measured by number of publications. Using factor analysis on survey responses, author finds that the scientific work environment that is most conducive to high productivity within these centers focuses on either maintaining a traditional, basic science approach to conducting research that discourages moving from one topic to another or working in a supportive work environment in which colleagues value each other's contributions. Male scientists in the sample show greater alignment in their responses with strategies that predict productivity.

Faulkner, Wendy. 2007. "Nuts and Bolts and People: Gender-Troubled Engineering Identities." Social Studies of Science, 37 (3): 331-356.

ABSTRACT: Engineer shave two types of stories about what constitutes "Real" engineering. In sociological terms, one is technicist, the other heterogeneous. How and where boundaries are drawn between "The technical" and "The social" in engineering identities and practices is a central concern for feminist technology studies, given the strong marking of sociality as feminine and technology as masculine. I explore these themes, drawing on ethnographic observations of building design engineering. This is a profoundly heterogeneous and networked engineering practice, which entails troubled boundary drawing and identities for the individuals involved — evident in interactions between engineers and architects, and among engineers, especially around management and design. Many engineers cleave to a technicist engineering identity, and even those who embrace the heterogeneous reality of their actual work oscillate between or straddle, not always comfortably, the two identities. There are complex gender tensions, as well as professional tensions, at work here — associated with distinct versions of hegemonic masculinity, with the technical/social dualism, and with what I call "Gender in/authenticity" issues. I conclude that technicist engineering identities persist in part because they converge with (and perform) available masculinities, and that women's (perceived and felt)membership as "Real" engineers is likely to be more fragile than men's. Engineering as a profession must foreground and celebrate the heterogeneity of engineering work. Improving the representation of women in engineering requires promoting more heterogeneous versions of gender as well as engineering.

Note: Ethnographic field work from 2 engineering design firms in the UK. Gendered dualisms: hard/soft; technical/social. For women engineers, tensions can flow from the very "Gender inauthenticity" of the woman engineer, which means that women engineers have a constant struggle to prove that they are not only "Real engineers" but also "Real women".

Fox, Mary Frank. 1998. "Women in Science and Engineering: Theory, Practice, and Policy in Programs." Signs, 24 (1): 201-223.

In this article, I take a new approach to the study of women in science and engineering by analyzing the patterns of graduate-level programs in (1) their definitions of the problem/issue of women in science and engineering, (2) their perspectives on meanings of gender that underlievariable definitions, (3) the solutions posed, as they correspond to definitions and gender perspectives, and (4) their relationship to organizational/ social contexts (i. e. , to the institutions, disciplinary communities, and regional locales in which they exist).

Gunter, Ramona and Amy Starnbach. 2003. "As Balancing Act and As Game: How Women and Men Science Faculty Experience the Promotion Process. Gender Issues, Winter: 24-42.

ABSTRACT: Studies on the division of domestic labor find that women take on a greater proportion of domestic responsibilities; this has implications for both women and men who work in demanding jobs. In this study of women and men science faculty at a major research university, the authors find that women tend to relate their experiences of the promotion process to both their domestic and faculty roles, whereas men tend not to consider that their domestic roles have any bearing on their experiences of the promotion process. Women view the promotion process in terms of the components that make demands on their time, and they suggest ways that the process could (and should) be changed. Men view the process as a challenging game, and they describe the promotion process, as it currently exists, as necessary and acceptable. The authors find that there are compelling reasons to reconsider the structure of the promotion process and to strengthen and expand the programmatic supports that address the needs of women.

Notes: this study was part of a larger NSF ADVANCE grant study. Data based on 22 taped interviews with women and 22 interviews with men. Good analyses — nice to have men's responses to compare to.

Hanson, Sandra L. 2007. 'success in Science Among Young African American Women: The Role of Minority Families." Journal of Family Issues, 28 (1): 3-33.

A conceptual framework that integrates critical gender theory and a multicultural approach is used to examine young African American women's experiences in high school science. Research reveals considerable success for these young women. The multicultural approach suggests that the unique history and culture of African American families may play a critical role. Quantitative and qualitative data are used to explore the family's rolein the science attainment process. Findings show that these young women feel less welcome in science than do young White women. However, their interest and involvement in science persist because of the family. Both mother's and father's influence is important. Although family variables are associated with success in science in the quantitative data, not all young women acknowledge or verbalize their awareness of this influence in the qualitative data. Instead, the young women often see their actions as independent. Implications of these findings for science programs and policies are suggested.

Notes: based on independently collected survey data (N=281 black women; 781 white women), with some open-ended questions.

Herzig, Abbe H. 2004. "slaughtering this beautiful math: Graduate women choosing and leaving mathematics." Gender and Education, 16 (3): 379-395.

Abstract: The quality of graduate students' relationships with faculty are crucial for students' success. Unfortunately, negative relationships with faculty are common for women in the sciences and mathematics. Six women doctoral students in one mathematics department in the US were interviewed to better understand the nature of their relationships with faculty members, and the effects of those relationships on their decisions to persist or to leave. These women described the limited or negative relationships they had with faculty. They spoke of ways in which they felt ignored, the lack of mentoring, advising, and other guidance, poor teaching, and a general lack of moral support. Each of them described ways in which they felt they did not 'fit in' in the department. These findings are interpreted through two lenses: the idea of participation in a community of practice and all that that entails, and Noddings' notions of caring. Implications for women in mathematics at all levels are discussed.

Notes: Interview data based on very small sample size. Particular attention is paid to gendered pipeline issues, especially with respect to mentoring in graduate school.

Jayaratne, Toby Epstein, Nancy G. Thomas, and Marcella Trautmann. 2003. "Intervention Program to Keep Girls in the Science Pipeline: Outcome Differences by Ethnic Status." Journal of Research in Science and Teaching, 40 (4):393-414.

Abstract: This study evaluated a 2-week residential program aimed at enhancing the science interest and persistence of high-achieving 8th-grade girls. Questionnaires were administered to 38 program participants (14 of whom were of minority ethnicity) and 173 applicants who did not attend the program, at 3 time points: preprogram, 1 year post program, and 4 years post program. Outcomes, measured post program, included science self-concept and interest, persistence and aspirations in science, science activities, science course-taking in high school, and plans for a science college major. There was no main effect of program participation on any of the outcome measures, but a significant Participation*Ethnicity interaction effect occurred for all but one of the outcome variables. At Time 2, and especially Time 3, non minority participants tended to have the most positive outcomes, whereas minority participants tended to have the most negative outcomes, compared with applicants. Post hoc analyses showed that although non minority girls overall were more advantaged, this difference did not explain results. Several interpretations for these findings are discussed, the most likely that some global feature of the program, not any intervention component, interacted over time with the girls' post program experience.

Notes: Results of this study highlight the importance of race/ethnicity in science retention/persistence efforts.

Prokos, Anastasia and Irene Padavic. 2005. "An Examination of Competing Explanations for the Pay Gap Among Scientists and Engineers". Gender & Society, 19 (4): 523-543.

ABSTRACT: This article uses a nationally representative data set to determine the role of glass ceiling barriers and cohort effects on the earnings differences between women and men in an elite and growing group of professionals: Scientists and engineers. It draws on national data gathered in four surveys during the 1990s for cohorts graduating between 1955 and 1990. Results indicate a continuing pay gap net of human capital, family status, and occupational characteristics that was not fully explained by either cohort effects or the glass ceiling. The authors suggest that the gender pay gap in these fields results from several unmeasured barriers that neither worsen across the life cycle nor become less problematic for recent cohorts. Improvements will require continued attention to discriminatory barriers.

Notes: Authors reject a glass ceiling explanation of pay gap. Also, they do not find that older cohorts have any larger pay gap than more recent cohorts. Authors suggest discrimination in other ways, but this is always hard to detect/measure.

Rosser, Sue V. 1998. "Applying Feminist Theories to Women in Science Programs" Signs, 24 (1): 171-200.

Notes: Essay on different types of feminist critique as applied to issues of women in science. Includes section on women of color.

Tate, Erika D. and and Marcia C. Linn. 2005. "How Does Identity Shape the Experiences of Women of Color Engineering Students?" Journal of Science Education and Technology, 14 (5/6)

ABSTRACT: This study seeks to understand the experiences of women of color engineering students who persist and identify some of the dilemmas they face. Evidence emerged that students formulate multiple identities to help them persist in their engineering programs. We assess the role that identity plays in the experiences of STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) women of color. This paper applies a multiple identities framework and presents students' experiences through the lenses of three emergent identities: academic, social, and intellectual. We discuss possible implications of the findings for academic and social support programs in higher education. We also identify some implications for precollege instruction.

Notes: Findings highlight the importance of academic success to budding women engineers' identity formation.

Xie, Yu and Kimberlee A. Shauman. 1998. "Sex Differences in Research Productivity: New Evidence about an Old Puzzle." American Sociological Review, Vol. 63 (6):847-870.

ABSTRACT: Numerous studies have found that female scientists publish at lower rates than male scientists. So far); explanations for this consistent pattern have failed to emerge, and sex differences in research productivity remain a puzzle. We report new empirical evidence based on a systematic and detailed analysis of data from four large, nationally representative, cross-sectional surveys of post secondary faculty in 1969, 1973, 1988, and 1993. Our research yields two main findings. First, sex differences in research productivity declined over the time period studied, with the female-to-male ratio increasing from about 60 percent in the late 1960s to 75 to 80 percent in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Second, most of the observed sex differences in research productivity can be attributed to sex differences in personal characteristics, structural positions, and marital status. These results suggest that sex differences in research productivity stem from sex differences in structural locations and as such respond to the secular improvement of women's position in science.

Notes: see also their book Women in Science. 2005. Harvard University Press.

Review: Contemporary Sociology: Xie and Shauman's volume Women in Science is a source of rich and detailed empirical analyses that take a bold and justified leap beyond the pipeline model, challenging assumptions and revealing complex processes. The findings and perspective of this study also frame areas for further research.

--Mary Frank Fox